environ monit assess journal impact factor

The LST and vegetation in a scatter plot reveal pixels' chronological trajectory ranging from low-temperature high vegetation conditions to identifying high-temperature low vegetation 27, 28. The Land surface temperature (LST) can be used for monitoring environmental problems, surface temperature variation and heat stress 25, 26. Global climate change and anthropogenic activities trigger thermal variation in the earth's surface and a gradual increase in the earth's temperature.

Land area monitoring is useful for planning and managing anthropogenic and environmental activities on the earth's surface 25. Land transformation due to global climate change and sea-level rise has caused an increase in coastal vulnerability 24. Studies reported higher accuracy using multi-temporal satellite images because infrared bands indicate the land–water interface and facilitate better shoreline delineation in the coastal region 22, 23. The multi-temporal satellite imagery among them is more extensively used to delineate the shoreline change 20, 21. Different techniques have been proposed for delineating the shoreline changes using remote sensing techniques, like Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) 14, 15, Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) image 16, the Video system 17, and satellite images 18, 19. Aerial photography and remote sensing technologies are widely used as an alternative to field surveys for mapping shorelines 12, 13. However, it is time-consuming, costly and labour intensive 10, 11. Shoreline mapping through field surveys provides the highest accuracy.

Many methods have been used to detect shorelines. The shoreline change assessment is vital for understanding the erosion-accretion rate, environmental conditions, biodiversity-related conditions, future shoreline change prediction, safe navigation, hazard mapping, and coastal resource management. Besides, SLR is a major controlling factor of shoreline changes 9. Changes in sedimentation dynamics due to the tidal effect are the major cause of erosion and accretion 7, 8. Global ice melting, one key factor for sea-level rise (SLR), also caused shoreline change and coastal vulnerability. The coastal erosion and accretion also caused the shoreline to shift to the land and ocean. The tectonic and thermal effects are the main reason for shoreline shifting. Shoreline change due to global sea-level rise and environmental disturbances is the major challenge in coastal management. Shoreline changes have been reported in different parts of the globe in recent years with the changes in the global environment 5, 6. The shoreline, the common line between land and water 1, is significantly affected by land use and environmental changes 2, 3, 4.

Also, the study’s findings could help develop new strategies and plan climate change adaptation. Urban expansion and sea-level rise gradually influence the island ecosystem, which needs proper attention, management, policies, and awareness planning to protect the environment of Farasan Island. The highly influenced areas by the environmental changes were the north, central, northwest, southwest, and northeast parts of the island. The sea-level rise caused a shift in the island's shoreline and caused a reduction of land by 80.86 km 2 during 1975–2020. The annual temperature showed an increase at a rate of 0.196 ☌/year. The built-up land increased by 5.69 km 2 over the study period to accommodate the population growth. Results revealed an increase in vegetation area on the island by 17.18 km 2 during 1975–1989 and then a decrease by 69.85 km 2 during 1990–2020. Multi-temporal Landsat data and DSAS were used for shoreline calculation based on endpoint rate (EPR) and linear regression. This study used Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS) to delineate the shoreline changes of Farasan Island during 1975–2020. Farasan Island, located in the south-eastern part of Saudi Arabia, experienced changes in sediment deposition from the Red Sea in recent years. Many parts of the world also noticed increased sediment deposition, tidal effects, and changes in the shoreline. Sea level rise (SLR) and anthropogenic activities have triggered more extreme climatic events and made the coastal region vulnerable in recent decades.

Coastal vulnerability assessment is the key to coastal management and sustainable development.

Environ monit assess journal impact factor